Federal Aviation Regulations

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Many of the regulations in this chapter use terminology and abbreviations that are specific to aviation, so the FAA created a part that defines these terms.

Night time is defined as the time between the end of evening civil twilight and the the beginning of morning civil twilight. These times are published in The Air Almanac online and are described in local time. This way of defining night time should not be confused with night time regarding recency of experience requirements listed in part 61 section 57 for carrying passengers at night.

There are four different categories of aircraft pertaining to the certification of airman. There are airplanes, rotorcraft, gliders and lighter than air. You can think of this as a broad classification. Categories are then broken down into classes. For airplane classes, we have single engine land, multi engine land, single engine sea, multi engine sea. For rotorcraft classes, we have helicopters and gyrocopters. For lighter than air classes, we have airships and balloons. These category and class definitions are specific to the certification of airmen. When it comes to the certification of aircraft, there are different definitions for these terms. Category is now referring to what the intended use, or operating limitations of the aircraft is. These categories include transport, normal, utility, limited, restricted, aerobatic and provisional. The classes used for certification of aircraft are the same as, or very similar to, the categories for certification of airmen, which are airplanes, rotorcraft, gliders and lighter than air. An air traffic control clearance is defined as an authorization to proceed under specific traffic conditions in a controlled airspace.

Some abbreviations to note are as follows.

MSL stands for mean sea level and is used to describe altitudes above the average level of the ocean.

AGL stands for above ground level, and describes the distance between you and the surface below you, regardless of the MSL altitude of that surface.

VFE Means the maximum speed at which flaps can be extended.

VLE means the maximum speed at which landing gear can be extended.

VNO represents the maximum structural cruising speed.

VA means design maneuvering speed.

VS0 Is the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed when the aircraft is in the landing configuration.

VX is the speed that gives the aircraft its best angle of climb.

VY is the speed that gives the aircraft its best rate of climb.

Part 21 of title 14 is about Certification Procedures for Products and Articles.

An airworthiness certificate is an FAA document which grants authorization to operate an aircraft in flight. An airworthiness certificate for an aircraft remains in force as long as maintenance and alteration of the aircraft are performed per the federal aviation regulations.

Part 39 is about airworthiness directives.

Airworthiness directives, or A.D.'s, are issued under part 39 by the FAA to require correction of unsafe conditions found in an airplane, an airplane engine, a propeller, or an appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. Airworthiness directives are regulatory and must be complied with, unless a specific exemption is granted. No person may operate an aircraft or a product to which an AD applies, except when in accordance with the requirements of that AD.

Part 43 lists regulations on maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration. A person who holds a pilot certificate may perform preventative maintenance on any airplane owned or operated by that pilot that is not used in air carrier services. Furthermore, to approve an airplane to be returned to service after preventative maintenance was done by a pilot, the pilot must hold at least a private pilot certificate. After preventative maintenance has been performed, the signature, certificate number, and kind of certificate held by the person approving the work, the date, and a description of the work must be entered in the aircraft maintenance records. Appendix A to this part lists the different actions that are considered preventative maintenance. Preventative maintenance means simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts not involving complex assembly operations. Examples include topping off fluids such as engine oil or hydraulic fluid, and servicing landing gear wheel bearings.

Part 47 talks about aircraft registration.

A dealers aircraft registration certificate is another form of aircraft registration. This certificate is only valid for flights within the United States by the manufacturer or  dealer for flight testing or demonstration for sale. Section 41 subpart B of this part requires the removal of the original aircraft registration certificate once the aircraft has been sold. The backside of the removed certificate of registration must be filled out with the appropriate information from the sale as well as the new owner's name and then mailed back to the FAA registry.

Part 61 refers to the Certification of Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors. 

When acting as pilot in command or as a required pilot flight crew member, you must have three things in your possession, including a valid pilot certificate, a current and appropriate medical certificate, and a current government issued photo ID.

You are required to present any of these documents when requested to do so by the FAA, the National Transportation Safety Board, or any federal, state, or local law enforcement officer. In the event of a DUI offense, a person who holds a certificate issued under this part shall provide a written report of each motor vehicle action involving alcohol or drugs to the FAA’s security and hazardous material safety office no later than 60 days after the motor vehicle action.

61.23

There are three different classes of medical certificates. First class, second class, third class.

A first class medical is required when exercising the privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate. A first class medical certificate expires at the end of the last day of the 12th month after the date of examination for operations requiring an airline transport pilot certificate if the pilot is under the age of 40 on the day of the examination. If the pilot was 40 years old or older on the day of the examination, the medical certificate expires at the end of the last day of the sixth month after the date of the examination when exercising an airline transport pilot license. If the pilot is conducting operations requiring only a commercial pilot certificate, the first class medical certificate will expire at the end of the last day of the twelfth month after the date of examination.

A second class medical certificate is required when exercising the privileges of a commercial pilot certificate. A second class medical certificate expires at the end of the last day of the twelfth month after the date of the examination.

A third class medical certificate is required when exercising the privileges of a private, recreational, or student pilot certificate. It is also required as a certified flight instructor when that person is acting as pilot in command. A third class medical is also required to have prior to taking a practical test for a recreational, private, commercial, or airline transport pilot certificate or rating. A third class medical certificate for operations requiring a private, recreational, flight instructor when acting as pilot in command, or student pilot certificate, will expire at the end of the last day of the 60th month after the date of examination, if the person was under 40 years old on the date of the examination. If the person was 40 years old or older on the date of the examination, then the third class medical will expire at the end of the last day of the 24th month after the date of the examination.

Basic med allows a pilot to conduct certain operations using a US driver's license instead of a medical certificate, as long as the pilot meets these conditions.

The pilot has to have held an FAA medical certificate at any time after July 14, 2006, the most recent of which may have been a special issuance medical, may be expired, and cannot have been suspended, revoked, withdrawn, or denied. The pilot must have completed an approved medical education course in the proceeding 24 calendar months in accordance with part 68. The pilot will receive a certificate of completion of this education course, and must carry it with them when acting as pilot in command. The pilot must receive a comprehensive medical examination from a state licensed physician in the previous 48 months in accordance with part 68. This exam is not required to be conducted by an aviation medical examiner.

According to this part, in order to act as pilot in command of a complex airplane, you must receive and log ground and flight training from an authorized instructor and receive a logbook endorsement. A complex airplane is defined as an airplane with retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller.

To act as pilot in command of a high performance airplane you must receive and log ground and flight training from an authorized instructor and receive a logbook endorsement. A high-performance airplane is defined as an airplane with an engine of more than 200 horsepower. A type rating is required by the pilot to act as pilot in command of an aircraft that has a gross weight of 12,500 pounds, A turbo jet powered airplane, or any other aircraft specified by the FAA through aircraft type certification procedures.

To act as pilot in command of an aircraft for which the pilot is rated, the pilot must have satisfactorily completed a flight review within the previous 24 calendar months. This flight review consists of a minimum of one hour of flight training and one hour of ground training by an authorized instructor.

To act as pilot in command of an aircraft while carrying passengers, you must have made three landings and three takeoffs within the preceding 90 days. All three of these landings must be made in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type if a type rating is required, as the one in which passengers are to be carried. The landings must also be made to a full stop If the aircraft is a tailwheel, rather than conventional landing gear, or completed at night. Night time in this case is defined as the period beginning one hour after sunset and ending one hour before sunrise.

In the event that there is a change to your permanent mailing address, you may not exercise the privileges of your pilot certificate after 30 days of this change unless you have made a notification to the FAA airman certification branch.

Any person may tow a glider from their aircraft, so long as that person meets a few guidelines. The pilot must hold at least a private pilot certificate. The pilot also must have 100 hours of pilot in command time in the aircraft category, class, and type if required, that the pilot is using to tow the glider. The pilot must have in his logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor certifying that the person has received ground and flight training in gliders. And lastly, within the preceding 24 months the pilot must have made at least three actual or simulated glider tows while accompanied by a qualified pilot, or made at least three flights as pilot in command of a glider towed by an aircraft.

There are many privileges and limitations that apply to a private pilot. A private pilot may not pay less than an equal share of the operating expenses of a flight with the passengers. These operating expenses include only fuel, Oil, airport expenses, or rental fees. Private pilots may operate an aircraft carrying passengers for a business only if the flight is incidental to that business and the pilot is not paid for being the pilot. A person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft used in a passenger carrying airlift sponsored by a charitable organization for which passengers make donations to the organization as long as a few requirements are met. The responsible FAA flight standards office must be notified at least seven days before the flight, the flight must be conducted from an adequate public airport, the pilot has to have logged at least 500 hours, no aerobatic or formation flights are performed, the aircraft holds a standard airworthiness certificate and is airworthy, the flight is a day VFR flight, and the flight is nonstop, begins and ends at the same airport, it is conducted within a 25 nautical mile radius of the departure point.

If a person plans on acting as pilot in command of an aircraft while operating under basic med, that person must adhere to a few additional limitations, such as the aircraft must not be certified to carry more than six occupants, and cannot have a maximum takeoff weight of more than 6000 pounds.  Also, no portion of the flight may be carried out at or above 18,000 feet MSL, the flight must be conducted within the United States unless a special authorization by the country to be flown in is received, and no portion of the flight can be conducted at an indicated airspeed greater than 250 knots. The pilot must also carry in his or her logbook the completed medical examination checklist, and the medical education course completion certificate.

Part 91 of title 14 discusses the general operating rules of aviation.There are many responsibilities that a pilot in command has while operating an aircraft. The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to the operation of that aircraft. In any emergency scenario, a pilot is allowed to deviate from any federal aviation regulation to the extent needed in order to maintain the safety of the aircraft and its passengers. If this is necessary, a written report of any deviations from a regulation should be filed with the FAA upon request. The pilot in command is responsible for determining that the aircraft is airworthy prior to every flight. The pilot should discontinue the flight when an unairworthy condition of the aircraft were to be found during preflight operations.

There are certain documents that the aircraft must have on board to be allowed to fly. The airworthiness certificate has to be onboard the aircraft and must be visible to all occupants on the aircraft. A current registration certificate must be present as well. If the flight is to be conducted internationally, a radio station license is required as well. An airplane flight manual or operating limitations document must be present, and have located within it, the weight and balance data for the aircraft. If the aircraft happens to be certified as experimental, then the operating limitations will be located on the airworthiness certificate.

Surprise, surprise, no pilot in command of an aircraft may allow any object to be dropped from that aircraft if it creates a hazard to people or property beneath it. Though, if reasonable precautions are taken to avoid injury or damage, then it is permitted.

Similar to driving a car, alcohol and drugs may impair your ability to perform the duties of pilot in command of an aircraft. You must wait at least eight hours after your last alcoholic beverage and have a blood alcohol content of .04 or less to be legal to fly. Though it may be true that these parameters are met, it is still possible that a person is still impaired, and should not operate an aircraft. You also may not act as a required crew member of an airplane if you are taking any drug that may affect your flying abilities. Failing to follow these restrictions and attempting to operate an aircraft while under the influence of drugs or alcohol is grounds for denial of an application for a certificate or rating. A pilot also may not allow a person who is obviously under the influence of alcohol or drugs to be carried aboard that aircraft, except in an emergency or if the person is a medical patient under proper care.

Regulations concerning preflight actions state that pilots are required to familiarize themselves with all available information concerning that flight. This includes runway lengths at airports of intended use and the airplanes takeoff and landing distances. Also, if the flight it’s going to be conducted under IFR, or not in the vicinity of an airport, the pilot must obtain weather reports, fuel requirements, alternates available, and any known traffic delays.

During takeoff and landing, and while on route, each required crewmember shall keep his or her safety belt fastened while at their station, and if shoulder harnesses are available, they must be used for takeoff and landing. Before conducting a flight, the pilot must ensure that each occupant is briefed on how to properly use the safety belts and shoulder harnesses. The pilot must then notify all occupants to fasten their safety belts and shoulder harnesses prior to taxiing, takeoff, or landing. If a passenger is less than two years old, then they must be held by an adult.

No pilots are allowed to operate aircraft in formation flight except when prior arrangements with all pilots have been made.

It is important for pilots to follow right of way rules to protect the safety of all people and aircraft in the vicinity. Any aircraft in distress has the right of way over all other aircraft. When two aircraft are approaching head on, the pilots of each aircraft should turn to the right to avoid collision, regardless of category. When two aircraft of different categories are converging, the right of way depends on the maneuverability of the aircrafts.  Balloons have the right of way over gliders, gliders have right of way over airships, and airships have right of way over airplanes and rotorcraft. If there is a situation where two aircraft of the same category are converging, but are not approaching head on, it is the aircraft that is to the others right that has the right of way. Anytime there are two or more aircraft approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right of way, but this rule shall not be abused to cut in front of, or overtake other aircraft. Lastly, an aircraft towing or refueling another aircraft has the right of way over all engine driven aircraft.

Aircraft have certain speed limits that apply to them depending on the air space and location that they are operating in. For instance, the speed limit while operating below 10,000 feet MSL, the speed limit is 250 knots. The speed limit is also 250 knots for aircraft operating within class bravo airspace. Anytime an aircraft is flying under class bravo airspace or in a VFR corridor through class bravo airspace, the speed limit is 200 knots. When operating at or below 2500 feet AGL and within four nautical miles of the primary airport of a class Charlie or Delta airspace, the speed limit is 200 knots. Please take note that all of these speeds are measured in indicated airspeed.

This part also outlines minimum altitudes to be flown over certain areas. When flying over congested areas, this includes cities, towns, open air assemblies, a pilot must maintain an altitude of 1000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2000 feet of the airplane. When not flying over congested areas the minimum altitude is 500 feet above ground level, except during takeoff & landing. When flying over open water or sparsely populated areas, an airplane may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle or structure. Altitude in all areas must be sufficient to permit an emergency landing without undue hazard to people or property on the surface if a power unit were to fail. 

Did you know that before departing on a flight, the altimeter should be set to the current local altimeter setting and If an altimeter setting is not available, the pilot should set the altitude to indicate the departure airport elevation. The altimeter of an airplane is required to be set to the standard altimeter setting of 29.92  when the aircraft operates above 18,000 feet MSL to guarantee vertical separation of airplanes at these altitudes.

Any time an air traffic control clearance is obtained, the pilot may not deviate from that clearance, unless  an emergency were to occur, unless a new clearance is obtained or the deviation is in response to a traffic collision avoidance maneuver. It is recommended that if you need to deviate from the clearance, you should advise air traffic control as soon as possible. In the case that you receive priority from air traffic control in an emergency, you must, upon request, file a detailed report within 48 hours to the chief of that ATC facility even if no regulation has actually been violated.

During VFR flight, there are a few fuel reserve requirements listed in this part of the Federal Aviation Regulations. When flying VFR during the day time, fuel reserves must be sufficient to fly to the first point of intended landing and then for an additional 30 minutes at a normal cruise speed. At night, an additional 45 minutes is required, instead of 30.

Vfr cruising altitudes are required for VFR aircraft when operating at 3000 feet above ground level, and up to 18,000 feet MSL. When operating on a magnet heading between 0 degrees and 179 degrees, use indicated altitudes of odd thousands plus 500 feet, such as 3,500 or 5,500 and so on. When operating on a magnetic heading between 180 and 359, use indicated altitudes of even thousands plus 500, such as 4,500 or 6,500. You can use the memory aid, east is odd, but west is even odder.

Emergency locator transmitters are devices installed on aircraft that assist in search and rescue operations in the event of an airplane accident, and they need to be inspected to ensure proper functioning. ELT batteries must be replaced, or recharged if rechargeable, after 1 cumulative hour of use or after 50% of their useful life expires.

ELT’s are required to be inspected every 12 months for proper installation, battery corrosion, operation of the controls and crash sensor, and the presence of a sufficient signal radiated from its antenna.

Airplanes operating on the ground or in the air, are required to display position lights, otherwise known as navigation lights, from the time between sunset and sunrise.

As an aircraft goes up in altitude, the pressure of the air drops, which makes it more difficult for us humans to get the oxygen that we need to survive. The regulations state that all occupants must be provided with oxygen when the airplane operated at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet.

Pilots and crew members may not operate an airplane at altitudes above 12,500 feet up to and including 14,000 feet for more than 30 minutes without supplemental oxygen. Pilots and crew members must use supplemental oxygen at all times when flying at altitudes above

14,000 feet.

When an aircraft is operating in certain airspaces and areas, an ATC transponder with altitude reporting capabilities is required. These areas include operations in Class alpha airspace, Class bravo airspace, when within 30 NM of the Class bravo airspace primary airport, within and above Class charlie airspace, Above 10,000 feet MSL except at and below 2,500 feet AGL. If a flight within class bravo airspace is desired without this equipment, you must submit a written request for the deviation from the controlling facility at least 1 hour before the proposed flight. ADSB Out is a function of an aircraft's onboard avionics that periodically broadcasts the aircraft's state vector in three dimensions of position and velocity. ADSB out equipment is also required in these areas, and including operations above class bravo airspace, and above 3000 feet MSL over the Gulf of Mexico from the United States coastline out to 12 nautical miles. These requirements do not apply to any aircraft not originally certificated with an electrical system. Requests for air traffic controller authorized deviations from these requirements must be made to the appropriate ATC facility at any time an aircraft is flown with an inoperative ADS-B Out system, and at least 1 hour before the proposed operation of an aircraft that is not equipped with ADS-B out. Aircraft equipped with ADS-B Out must operate the equipment in the transmit mode at all times unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator in the interest of security, or directed by ATC for safe air traffic control functions. Aircraft operating in Class alpha airspace are required to have ADSB Out equipment installed that operates on the frequency of 1090 megahertz. Aircraft operating in airspace designated for ADSB, but outside of Class alpha airspace, must have ADSB equipment installed that either operates on the frequency of 1090 megahertz or operates using a universal access transceiver on the frequency of 978 megahertz.

With some exceptions, part 91 states that any occupants onboard an aircraft must wear an approved parachute during flights that are to include any intentional maneuver exceeding 60 degrees of bank or a nose-up or nose-down attitude of 30 degrees or more. Parachutes that include a canopy, shrouds, and harness that are composed exclusively of synthetic fibers like nylon or rayon, must have been repacked by a certificated parachute rigger within the preceding 180 days. Parachutes that have any component that is composed of silk, or other natural fibers or materials must be repacked by a certificated parachute rigger within the preceding 60 days.

There are some additional limitations that apply to the operation of restricted and experimental category aircraft. Restricted category civil aircraft may not normally be operated over densely populated areas, In congested airways, or near a busy airport where passenger transport is conducted. Aircraft with an experimental certificate may not operate over a densely populated area or in a congested airway. These restrictions can be overruled with a special authorization given by the FAA.

This part also outlines requirements for certain inspections to be completed on an aircraft. The owner or operator of an aircraft is the person responsible for maintaining that aircraft in an airworthy condition and for complying with all Airworthiness Directives. An operator is defined as a person who uses, authorizes to use, an aircraft for the purpose of air navigation. Thus, the pilot in command is also responsible for ensuring that the aircraft is maintained in an airworthy condition and that there is compliance with all airworthiness directives before operation. After maintenance has been completed on an aircraft, the owner or operator of that aircraft must ensure that maintenance personnel have made  the appropriate entries in the aircraft maintenance records stating that the aircraft has been approved for return to service.

When aircraft alterations or repairs change the flight characteristics, the aircraft must be test flown and approved for return to service by at least a private pilot prior to carrying passengers.

Aircraft are required to have an annual inspection completed to remain airworthy. Annual inspections expire on the last day of the twelfth calendar month after the previous annual

Inspection was completed. The completion of the annual inspection and the airplane's return to service should be appropriately documented in the airplane maintenance records. The documentation should include the current status of airworthiness directives and the method of compliance. Any aircraft that is being used for compensation or hire, including flight instruction, must be inspected on a 100 hour basis in addition to the annual inspection.

These inspections are due every 100 hours from the prior due time, regardless of when the inspection was actually performed. That being said, this inspection interval can be overflown by a maximum of 10 hours if the aircraft is being flown to a location where the inspection can be completed.

ATC transponders also have to be inspected if they are required for a certain flight. No person may use a transponder unless it has been tested and inspected within the preceding 24 calendar months.

During flights carrying passengers, the pilot in command is responsible for ensuring that all occupants have been properly briefed prior to takeoff on six important items.Smoking restrictions, use of safety belts and shoulder harnesses, location and means of opening the passenger entry door and emergency exits, location of survival equipment, emergency procedures and the use of flotation equipment in the event of ditching of the aircraft, and normal and emergency use of oxygen equipment if installed in the airplane. 

National Transportation Safety Board, or NTSB, part 830 discusses the notification of aircraft incidents and accidents that occur during the operation of an aircraft within the United States.

Despite whether injuries do occur to occupants or not, an airplane accident resulting in substantial damage must be reported to the nearest NTSB field office immediately. Also required to be reported immediately is any time a required crewmember is unable to carry out normal flight duties because of in-flight injury or illness, In-flight fire, flight control system malfunction, and if an overdue airplane is believed to have been involved in an accident, an airplane collision in flight, and an engine failure of any turbine jet engine. When an accident occurs that isn't one of these situations, the operator of an aircraft is required to file a report to the NTSB within 10 days after the accident. A report must be filed within 7 days if an overdue aircraft is still missing. A report on an aircraft incident for which immediate notification is required shall be filed only when requested by an authorized representative of the NTSB.

Prior to the time the NTSB or its authorized representative takes custody of aircraft wreckage, cargo or mail, may not be disturbed or moved except when it is necessary to remove people that are injured or trapped in the wreckage, protect the wreckage from further damage, or to protect the public from injury.